Corporate Governance in Family Businesses in Serbia Essay Example

Corporate Governance in Family Businesses in Serbia Essay CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN FAMILY BUSINESSES IN SERBIA PhD Katarina Djulic, Faculty of Economics, Finance and Administration, [emailprotected] edu. rs MSc Tanja Kuzman, Faculty of Economics, Finance and Administration PhD Katarina Djulic is Assistant Professor at FEFA on subjects of Corporate Finance and Corporate Governance. She also works as Senior Consultant in KPMG Serbia. She worked as an Associate Operations Officer at the International Finance Corporation, World Bank Group, on the Corporate Governance Program. She holds a Bachelor of Law from the University of Belgrade, a Master of Law (LL. M. ) from Northwestern University, a Master in Public Policy from Harvard University JFK School of Government, and a PhD degree from the University of Belgrade Faculty of Economics. Prior to joining IFC, Ms Djulic worked as a legal adviser to firms in Belgrade and New York and afterwards at the Ministry of Finance, first as an adviser to the Minister and then as an Assistant Minister in charge of the Financial System Division. She also worked for European Bank for Reconstruction and Development in London in Office of General Council. PhD Djulic was a member of Board of Directors in DDOR, Novi Sad, a member of Supervisory Board in Jubanka, Beograd and Chairwoman of Supervisory Board in Central Securities Depositary and Clearing House, Republic of Serbia. MSc Tanja Kuzman is Teaching Assistant at Faculty of Economics, Finance and Administration. She teaches Corporate Governance and Corporate Finance. She is also Advisor for Corporate Governance and Corporate Finance in Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Serbia, Executive Director of the Institute at Faculty of Economics, Finance and Administration and a Member of the Board of Directors of Alumni FEFA. We will write a custom essay sample on Corporate Governance in Family Businesses in Serbia specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Corporate Governance in Family Businesses in Serbia specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Corporate Governance in Family Businesses in Serbia specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer She holds University of Sheffield Masters Degree with Distinction in Banking and Finance, where she was proclaimed as one of the best students, and a BA from the Faculty of Economics, Finance and Administration. She was awarded with two HEAD’s list certificates for outstanding academic achievement of the University of Sheffield and in February 2011 she started her PhD studies in Finance. From September 2009 to December 2011 she worked as Coordinator of the National Competitiveness Council of the Republic of Serbia and Junior Advisor for Economy and Finance in the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister for European Integration. In July 2011 she has spent a month working for European Commission, Directorate General for Economic and Financial Affairs in Brussels, on the issues related to the financial stability and financial institutions of the European Union. She has finished training on European Negotiations organized by Centre des etudes europeennes de l’ENA from Strasbourg. Abstract Family businesses constitute the world’s oldest and most dominant form of business organizations. In many countries, including Serbia, family businesses play the key role in the economy growth and workforce employment. Yet many of them fail to be sustainable in the long-term often due to some specific governance challenges (family business succession, professionalization of the management etc. ). In Serbia, it has recently been recognized that family businesses need more institutional support in the area of corporate governance. The corporate governance scorecard (questionnaire on key aspects of corporate governance) for family businesses in Serbia was developed as part of cooperation between the Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the IFC. This paper presents the results of the scorecard used in assessing corporate governance in seven family businesses in Serbia. Analyses of the results represent a unique case study that provides an overview of the quality of corporate governance in family-owned companies in Serbia. It shows that the state of corporate governance in family businesses on the Serbian market has a lot of distance to go to reach best practice. All companies recognize the fundamental importance of family governance to their business. However, they lack knowledge and guidance on how to systematically deal with governance challenges. Key words: family businesses, corporate governance, scorecard, board of directors, transparency, controlling environment. Paper classification: Case study. INTRODUCTION Family businesses are one of the oldest and most common forms of business organizations, drivers of economic growth and economic development, representing a large percentage of the total number of companies in the world. Family businesses in most countries in the world account for over 70% of the total number of businesses and have very significant impact on economic growth and employment. For example, in the U. S. family businesses create 59% of new jobs, while their share in the GNP is 50%, and they represent nearly 90% of all businesses (Kuratko and Hodgetts, 2004). Family businesses in Spain and Latin America produce, respectively, 75% and 60% of the GDP (Network for Family Enterprise, 2008). Poutziouris (2000) also notes that in addition to economic growth and employment, family businesses build entrepreneurial spirit and enable knowledge transfer between generations as well as development of a sense of loyalty, long-term commitment and corporate independence. Therefore it is considered that the creation, growth and sustainability of family businesses is crucial for the development of national economy. According to data of the KPMG Canadian Centre for family business in next 20 years 15 trillion dollars of wealth in the world will be transferred from one generation to another. The same source also points out that 70% of family businesses do not survive the transition to the second generation, 90% do not survive the transition to the third generation, and 95% of family businesses do not plan succession. Other sources confirm these findings indicating that only 5-15% of the family businesses continue to exist in the third generation of the successors of the founder (Davis and Harveston, 1998; Neubauer and Lank, 1998; Poutziouris, 2000, Ibrahim and Dumas, 2001; Grassi and Giarmarco, 2012 ). The reasons for the unsustainability of family businesses are sometimes exactly the same as the reasons for all other businesses. Management processes, informality and lack of discipline are the most common weaknesses of family businesses (IFC, 2008). In the process of managing the family usiness, unlike other businesses, feelings and family problems can be involved complicating in that way the management process. On the other hand, the lack of procedures and informality in the conduct of business, can lead to inefficiencies and conflicts, while lack of planning in terms of succession, property management and absence of policies for the employment of family members leads in most cases to the failur e of the family business. All the above mentioned reasons for the failures of family businesses stem from various weaknesses in Corporate Governance (hereinafter: CG) practices employed in family businesses. Therefore, several researchers have investigated the relationship between the level of CG and family businesses as to determine whether these two variables are positively or negatively correlated. In their study Cheung et al (2010) have found that quality of CG appears very significant for family businesses. They have shown that good CG practices in family businesses are linked to higher stock returns and lower unsystematic risks (Cheung et al, 2010). Results of their study for family businesses are consistent with findings of Renders et al (2010) who found a positive correlation between CG practices and company performance. Furthermore, Renders et al (2010) have proven that higher CG ratings lead towards improved operating performance and higher market values of companies. These positive effects of CG ratings on market values of companies have also been recorded in emerging and transition countries (Gary and Gonzales, 2008; Khanchel El Mehdi, 2007; Black et al, 2006; Durnev and Kim, 2005; Black, 2001). Notwithstanding, Cheung et al (2010) and Geksen and Oktem (2009) find that family businesses have poor CG practices. Cheung et al (2010) explain that family businesses, which in most cases have concentrated ownership structure, are associated with low level of CG. Furthermore, their finding indicates a concerning fact that family businesses improve their CG practices slower than their peers (Cheung et al, 2010). Geksen and Oktem (2009) also find that practices which prevail in family businesses strongly contradict the recommendations of the CG codes of best practices. When it comes to Serbia the picture is more or less the same as in all developing countries. We have large number of family businesses which went from being an entrepreneurial project to holding structures, now with several hundreds of employees. Family businesses in Serbia perceive CG as something abstract, fleeting, something that is hard to define and measure, and hence there is the conviction that CG does not bring concrete, tangible and quick benefits. Better business results which follow concerted CG efforts are nearly never exclusively linked to improved CG mechanisms as from stances of family businesses in Serbia. At best, they are ready to admit that CG can contribute to moderately improved business results. Despite this perception, the goal of the authors was to investigate the level of CG in family businesses in Serbia in order to be able to recognize the main weakness/problems and provide recommendations which could solve them. This paper presents the findings of analysis of CG practice in 8 Serbian family businesses that responded to the invitation for assessing CG practice using the scorecard methodology. The scorecard was developed by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Serbia (CCIS) as part of the Program for Improving CG, with the support of the IFC and with participation of one of the co-authors of this paper. The scorecard consists of questions that are systematically organized into CG areas that reflect the basic principles of good corporate governance. Based on the scorecard the CG rating in Serbia can be created and even though it is quite hard to produce a quantitative evaluation of CG the scorecard can still be a valid indicator of good or bad CG practices. The paper is divided in three additional sections. The introduction is followed by a presentation of the methodology used in assessing corporate governance practice. In second part, results of the assessment of CG in family businesses in Serbia are presented. In conclusion, closing considerations followed by recommendations for further CG improvements in family businesses in Serbia are noted. METHODOLOGY The CG scorecard for family businesses in Serbia, developed as part of cooperation between the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Serbia and IFC, is a questionnaire whose questions are systematically presented under headings that reflect the basic principles of good CG. Responses to questions generate a score that is expressed as a percentage and indicates what percentage of best practice was applied by a given family business in a particular CG area. The main goal of the scorecard approach is to enable companies to easily assess their own CG practices, to allow investors to determine their preference regarding the level of CG which companies need to have in order to be considered as possible investment and to enable comparison across countries and industries (Bassen, 2004; Strenger, 2004). The scorecard is divided into the following five areas of corporate governance: 1) commitment to good CG practices; 2) board of directors; 3) supervision, control and independent audit operations; 4) transparency and disclosure; 5) owners; Each of these areas has a relative importance expressed in percentages in relation to the total of 100%. In view of the fact that each area is significant in its own way and has a different contribution to governance, their relative importance differs accordingly. A relatively greater weight is carried by two areas for which experience shows that they represent vital points of good CG in a company –company commitment to CG principles and supervision, control and independent audit operations. As a result these two areas are weighted with 25%, board of directors and owners are weighted with 20%, while transparency and disclosure is weighted with 10% in the final score. In each of the specified areas there is up to eight questions that reflect recommended practice for realizing principles to which a particular area is dedicated. Answers to those questions are graded with marks from 1 to 10, where each mark is related to certain percentage of the mark for that specific area. A total result of around 50% means that a company has implemented CG practices as required by relevant legislation. In order to achieve a score of over 50%, a company needs to go beyond the requirements of statutory regulations. Finally, a particular quality of the scorecard is that it takes account not just of the overall score, but also of the scores of individual CG areas, which gives a test company a clear indication of the areas in which its CG practices lag behind the company average. The CCIS and the IFC, with participation of both authors in the process, have conducted an assessment of CG practices in 8 family businesses in Serbia. Family businesses were guaranteed confidentiality in respect of scoring and results, with a view to ensuring objectivity and realistic assessment of current status. ASSESSMENT RESULTS Commitment to good CG practices As first area in the scorecard it consists of questions which provide a general sense of the level of CG practices employed by the family business. The scorecard for this area seek to establish: (i) the existence of a CG code (whether developed in-house or whether an existing code has been adopted), (ii) to what extent the company’s internal corporate documents reflect the CG principles, (iii) whether implementation of CG principles is discussed in company (if yes, how often and on which level), and (iv) do principles of CG and corporate social responsibility take into account the interests of various stakeholders, thus preventing conflicts. The figure below summarizes the scores of family businesses for this area (companies are designated by letters to ensure confidentiality of results). [pic] Chart 1: Commitment to good CG practices. CG Codes are not present in six out of eight family businesses, implying that those companies have not developed their own codes and have not adopted the existing codes of CCIS or Belgrade Stock Exchange. Despite that fact, owners and higher management have shown a great level of consciousness regarding the importance of CG and further improvements they need to make in CG area. When it comes to conversations about CG and succession process in most cases owners and family members talk about those issues from time to time and except family members involved in family business management others lack the interest or they are rather passive in the whole process. Internal documents exist in all companies but they usually satisfy the minimum requirements prescribed by law and do not encompass the CG best practices and principles. Most of internal acts exist formally due to legal requirement but they are not implemented in conduct of family business. Furthermore, owners and higher management have clear strategy for future development of family business, but that strategy in not formalized in the form of document. Due to that fact family members adhere to goals mentioned and set through formal or informal conversations between family members and higher management. Although poorly implemented in practice, family businesses show a clear vision of how their business should be organized and in which direction should be developed. All family businesses recognize the importance of corporate social responsibility. Therefore they pay more attention to local communities in which they undertake their operations but their corporate social responsibility in most cases boils down just to the philanthropic activities. In conclusion we can state that in family businesses in Serbia there is the absence of CG codes, that business strategies are not formalized in the form of documents, that internal documents fulfill legally determined norms but do not encompass the CG best practices and principles, that owners and higher management attach a high level of importance to CG and that family businesses in Serbia undertake large number of philanthropic activities. Board of directors In assessing the functioning of the board of directors questions in this section try to give a snapshot of practices regarding the management of family businesses and the role of the owner in them. In this CG area family businesses are asked whether there is a clear demarcation between operational and strategic/supervisory level in the company, is there a ormal board of directors or some other body which is responsible for the formulation of the strategy and supervision of the management, if there is a board of directors is there an internal act on the functioning of the board which defines needed competencies of the members of the board of directors and their responsibilities, is the function of the general manager and president of the board of directors clearly separated, how compensation of the members of the board is determined, is there a process of evaluation of effectiveness and quality of the work carried out by the board, whether the board establishes comm ittees which could contribute to the quality of their work, is there the annual plan of board of directors meetings and whether members of the board of directors get the materials for the meeting in advance. [pic] Chart 2: Board of directors. In all of the tested companies there is the absence of Board of directors. Members of the families often have management functions and are directly involved in the operational management of the business. On the other hand, they are usually the ones determining the strategic path of future development of the family business implying in that way that there is no clear distinction between operational and strategic/supervisory level. In most cases owners convenes meetings when he assesses the need for doing so and only in two family businesses there is clear and established dynamics of these meetings. Only in one of the tested companies owner of the family business is not as the same time a director and there is no overlapping of responsibilities and in just two companies owner sees themselves as president of the board of directors in future. Three of the tested companies have family meetings during which they discuss performance of the family business, family issues which can influence the business and its future development. When it comes to the professional management, in only two of the companies tested, managing of the company is undertaken by family members and externally hired professionals which proves the low level of consciousness and the need for professionalization of the management. In most of the family businesses there is no established and formalized reward system. Absence of reward system is also a potential problem, because it reduces the possibility of objective and adequately rewarding or punishing of employees. The commonly established practice in tested companies shows that owners usually determine the rewards, its level and they make assessment of the effectiveness of the management. Even though the test has shown that owners of family businesses have aversion for professionalization of the management they feel reluctant in hiring external experts and consultants from time to time. Based on the results of the scorecard we can conclude that in family businesses there is no formally established board of directors and that there is no clear distinction between operational and strategic/supervisory roles. Supervision, control and independent audit operations In this area the questions concern internal controls, internal audit function, external audit and reporting mechanisms in the company. Seeking to determine whether the company has any kind of internal supervision system in place, the scorecard focuses on functions rather than on formal bodies. It tries to gauge comprehensiveness, sophistication and effectiveness of the existing system. The area has a 25% weight in the final grade. Two groups of questions focus on the system of internal controls Has the company formalized its procedures? If yes, who is in charge of development of such a system? Have the owners formally discussed risks and have they analyzed the existing procedures and the company’s modus operandi in light of the identified risks? How does the company ensure that it is compliant with relevant laws and regulations? The next two groups of questions relate to the internal audit function Does it exist in any form? Is it formalized? What kind of resources does it have at its disposal? Is it independent from the management? The third group of questions relates to the external audit and tries to capture the company’s experience with external auditors in the ast couple of years Does the company have an external auditor? Who is the external auditor of the company? Has the external auditor ever issued a qualified opinion? The last question relates to the supervisory level of the company ( the board if it exists or the owner(s)) and seeks to define to what extent and in which way the management communicates with the company’s supervisory bodies. [pic] Graph 3: Supervision, control and independent audit operations. In the tested companies, internal controls are either altogether absent or they have been introduced in response to customers’ or regulatory demands without any prior analysis of internal risks in the company. The tested companies that operate in regulated industries (food production, medical supplies, transportation) and that are export-oriented received relatively higher scores since there is a large number of international industrial standards in these industries/markets that allow companies to adopt these standards routinely rather than to develop independently in-house internal control systems. Although these standards represent a type of internal control system, an internal control system should not be reduced to their implementation. In order for an internal control system to fulfill its purpose, it must be implemented in an adequate control environment and be based on a company-specific and comprehensive risk analysis and assessment. None of the tested companies has any form of internal audit function and the entire supervision is performed by the owner personally and, sometimes, the employed members of the family. This monitoring style lacks a structured approach and a supporting system. Supervision is performed either continuously, which is extremely cumbersome keeping in mind operational responsibilities of the owner, or on an ad hoc basis. Often, the owner does not have sufficient technical knowledge to supervise all the business processes in the company and as a consequence he focuses on the business areas where he feels comfortable resulting in considerable supervisory â€Å"blind spots†. Supervision further suffers as the business expands since at certain point in time, the owner’s physical capacity becomes limitation for an effective supervision. Finally, since the owner often operationally anages the company, he effectively supervises himself which is far from good practice. The external audit function seems to be understood inadequately. The companies still perceive external audit primarily as an expense so the function is introduced only if it is legally required. It of ten happens that the owner does not have any direct communication with the external auditor. The contact person for the external auditor is, in the majority of cases, the head of accounting (whose work is verified by the auditor). Where the function exists, the auditors, as a rule, are small, local businesses that issue unqualified opinions. Their mandates are automatically extended for the period of 3 – 4 years. Transparency and disclosure Although a great majority of family businesses in Serbia are small and medium non–listed companies, some of them are rather big and require a solid organizational structure, some have extensive international business operations, and others seek significant external funding (from banks primarily but also from individual investors and private equity funds). Due to these considerations, the scorecard has a part that relates to transparency and disclosure. However, since the scorecard primarily focuses on non-listed companies, this CG area has relatively smaller significance and it contributes only 10% to the final grade. In this domain the scorecard seeks to determine whether the company has a reporting policy (formalized or not), whether it uses its website for publishing relevant information and, finally, whether all relevant information is also released in English (which allows a company to reach a far broader investor and/or client base). After this, the scorecard focuses on specific types of information which practice indicates to be of greatest interest to stakeholders. Thus it seeks to determine whether the company releases in timely manner: (i) its financial statements, (ii) its management report, (iii) materially significant information, (iv) biographical information of all members of management i. e. family members that are involved in business, and (v) related party transactions. [pic] Graph 4: Transparency and disclosure. The poor results presented in chart 4 are not surprising since, as already mentioned, the tested companies are mostly small and medium family businesses. In addition, there are no legal requirements for non-listed businesses regarding transparent business operations. Thus, the research confirms once again the assumption that companies in Serbia, as a rule, tend to fulfill only the legally prescribed minimum. Some companies have decently informative websites but they contain only marketing information relevant for customers. The companies that export have also websites in foreign languages. No single company in the tested group has a structured approach to information disclosure. Some of the tested companies do have monthly or quarterly bulletins that are distributed to their customers. Financial statements, as a rule, are not public and if some financial information is available on the company website, it is out of date. Only one company in the tested sample regularly prepares an annual report because it participates in international tenders and this exercise helps it present its business efficiently to a more sophisticated business community. A majority of the interviewed owners stated that they would like to keep their business within the family and that they did not plan an IPO. Finally, most of the tested businesses engage in related party transactions but, as expected, these transactions are not regulated neither are they transparent. The research indicates that Serbian companies are still not adequately motivated to publish information and still continue to misunderstand the importance of transparency in business. Owners The last CG area of the scorecard deals with owners. This part of the scorecard focuses on key issues of family governance and has a 20% weight in the final grade. The scorecard tries to determine if there is any formal document which spells out family business guiding principles such as â€Å"family protocol†, â€Å"family business rules† etc. Formally establishing these rules could result in the most important piece of work achieved by the family business in managing its family component and the process of succession. The econd group of questions tries to determine quality, effectiveness and timing of communication between family members that are actively involved in the business ant those members that pursue other interests and thus are not familiar with the day-to-day state of t he family business. The purpose of this communication is to provide a forum that allows all the family to learn more about the family business and to provide them with an opportunity to express their views on family issues that impact the business as well as business issues that impact the family. The third group of questions enquires about the family grooming plan. The grooming plan outlines the most important business skills required by successors to effectively manage the family business at the transition date. The scorecard tries to determine how the family prepares the next generation for management succession and if it has a formalized grooming plan. The fourth group of questions asks if the family has developed an employment policy for family members. It’s understandable that the senior generation would like to have all their children involved in the family business. However, allowing children a safe employment haven just because they have no better alternative, can cause major problems. Thus, having criteria that outline what is required and expected from the family members who wish to be employed in the family business is crucial. The fifth and sixth groups of questions try to determine if the family members have any formal form of communication which would allow them to manage the key family component separately from managing business operations. The purpose of this forum is to lay out agreed ground rules and objectives for the firm and to discuss major issues (like succession) while minimizing the threat that conflicts in the family could jeopardize the business. [pic] Graph 5: Owners. The tested companies scored the highest in this CG area. The primary reason for such a good result is great commitment of the first generation to prepare the second generation for the future transition. Although only one of the interviewed owners is familiar with basic CG mechanisms that family businesses have at disposal for managing ownership and management succession, all of them expressed great readiness to learn and to apply these mechanisms in their businesses. In fact, all the interviewed owners have been trying to find ways to manage these challenges and all of them expressed a great concern regarding succession process in their businesses. Now, there might be some research bias since the tested businesses volunteered to engage in the CG testing and all were attending a workshop on CG organized by CCIS. It is probably true that a random sample would yield lower scores in this CG area as it would in Commitment to good CG practices. Still, we believe that a succession threat is looming over the first generation of Serbian entrepreneurs and that all of them are experiencing problems due to a lack of the entrepreneurial tradition in Serbia and a lack of CG knowledge. None of the businesses had any form of family protocol neither did they have any formal for gathering family members involved in business to discuss family issues that affec

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School Administration - Essay Example As a result, reluctance of potential administrators (Rayfield), and the turnover rate of administrators continue to rise (Senge et. al 88). Nevertheless, the slim chance to beam in and at success motivates site administrators to persevere through battles and wars waged on them by stakeholders to whom they offer their public service. Due to inexperience, aspiring administrators lack the skill to realistically anticipate and effectively cope with the pressing responsibilities often experienced in lead administration. Aspiring administrators should seek the help of others to cope as some of their ideal expectations are adjusted by realistic occurrences. According to Dr. Lorraine Monroe, leadership is the key determinant of a great school (12). Candidates for the leading position take great notice of the publicity that comes along with the leading position but slightly recognize the magnitude of responsibility. As the chief official of a designated school site, the administrator bears the responsibility of all that happens within the building. According to elementary principal Kimsherion Reid, "No matter what goes on in the building, it reflects on you" (Delisio). Thus, the site administrator has the challenge of making sure all aspects of the school exist peacefully and productively. Lorraine Monroe states: "The real leader is the servant of the people she leads" (126). Administrative candidates may not realize that an administrator does not occupy the throne of a dictator. Rather, he or she must learn from and oftentimes accommodate stakeholders, others who take part in the educational process. Stakeholders include parents, students, teachers, custodians, as well as other members of the community. A content group of stakeholders lessens administrators' worries. Thus, administrators and aspiring administrators alike must learn to find a comfortable medium that will appease most who are involved in issues that arise. One frequent issue school administrators encounter is adequately and effectively handling student discipline. In Loco Parentis grants educators the right to stand in place of parents while children are in the school's jurisdiction. As they temporarily stand in place of the parent, educators are liable for students' safety and "have the authority to direct the pupil and to punish for infractions, much as a parent would" (Reutter 763). Specifically designed to protect the best interest of all students, In Loco Parentis grants educators authority to exercise control. However, some inexperienced administrators are surprised to find that the granted authority is often challenged resulting in the necessity for additional accommodations. Differences in values and opinions often sabotage efforts to accommodate everyone in a satisfactorily manner. For example, administrators and parents may agree to work for the students' best interest. What happens, however, when the administrator and parent disagree on the consequence assigned for the child's misbehavior What is the solution when the parent contends that his or her child's behavior is not misbehavior at all In such a situation, how can the administrator appropriately serve and appease the student and parent while fulfilling his or her duty as one who maintains order in the school Administrators are expected to be diplomatic chief officials. With the responsibility of diffusing problems prior to their getting out of hand, administrators must balance and compromise without totally

Irish Persecution by England Essay Example for Free

Irish Persecution by England Essay Anti-Irish sentiment (also known as Hibernophobia, from Hibernia, the Latin name for Ireland) is traditionally rooted in the medieval period. The first British involvement in Ireland began in 1169, when Anglo-Norman troops arrived at Bannow Bay in County Wexford. During the next half millenium, successive English rulers attempted to colonize the island, pitching battles to increase their holdings – moves that sparked periodic rebellions by the Irish. When did this happen? – The English persecution of Ireland began in the 1800’s with the Act of Union which put Ireland officially under the rule of London. It has continued up until present day but persecution has decreased extremely over the past 300 years. Were any specific groups targeted? – Yes, Catholic Irish were strongly persecuted by English Protestants, which continues into present day. North Ireland seceded but was subject to much violence and was eventually forced back under British control, and still is the center of most of the heated debates of today. How were they persecuted? – Irish people were discriminated against and even murdered by English people. One of the most infamous acts came in 1972, when British paratroopers opened fire on a group of Catholic demonstrators and killed 14 people. The Penal Laws were considered to be the first form of official apartheid issued in the world, dividing and targeting people by their religion. All those not of the Anglican/Lutheran faith including not only Catholics but also Jews, Presbyterians and other types of Protestants were denied rights in relation to property ownership, political participation, and university education. Prohibition on mixed marriages on the basis of religious and racial grounds led to many rallies and riots by the Irish against the discrimination and prejudice they faced. How does this affect people today? Ethnic relations in the Republic of Ireland are relatively peaceful, given the uniformity of national culture, but Irish Travellers have often been the victims of prejudice. In Northern Ireland the level of ethnic conflict, which is inextricably linked to the provinces divergence of religion, nationalism, and ethnic identity, is high, and has been since the outbreak of political violence in 1969. Since 1994 there has been a shaky and intermittent cease-fire among the paramilitary groups in Northern Ireland. The 1998 Good Friday agreement is the most recent accord. What happened to cause it? – The English invasion sparked a lot of anti-English sentiment and led to constant fighting between the two groups. Also, the English exerted complete control and did not help the Irish during the Great Famine between 1845 and 1852, which caused riots and sparked other prejudiced movements and laws. Were there any significant figures in this? English King William III asserted complete control over the Irish in 1691. Eamon de Valera was the leader of the Sinn Fein, a political party which advocated Irish independence. He was almost executed for participating in an uprising in Dublin. Michael Collins was the leader of the IRA (the Irish Republican Army) who fought against the British for the Government of Ireland Act in 1920. Bringing the IRA fight into the international spotlight was Bobby Sands, an IRA member who died while on a hunger strike in a Belfast prison to protest his status as a common prisoner, rather than a political one.

The Congress for New Urbanism and Environmental Awareness Essay

The Congress for New Urbanism and Environmental Awareness In the last two decades the New Urbanism movement has begun among planners, designers, and builders. Though it does not provide complete solutions to many of the environmental problems caused by human development, it shows a greater awareness of the undesirable and potentially destructive tendencies exhibited by conventional methods of design, planning and construction. Robert Davis, board chairman of the Congress for the New Urbanism, describes the problem of urban sprawl and development. "For five millennia, we have built towns and cities with strong centers and clear edges, beyond which lay farms and forests and lakes and streams. For five decades these clear edges have become increasingly ragged, and the centrifugal forces of sprawl have flung a strange collection of objects across the landscape. The strangest of these objects are large boxes with very specialized functions. They are connected to each other by swaths of asphalt and each is surrounded by a small sea of the same material. Their placement relative to each other and to the smaller boxes we live in is designed and planned for the maximum possible consumption of our time, and of energy in various forms, including human..."(http://www.cnu.org/nunjuly98.html). "Our monoculture development pattern started as a good idea to separate steel mills and slaughter houses from dwellings. Now we rigidly separate all uses: our homes, our workplaces, our children’s schools, the places we assemble. This not only ensures the maximum possible consumption of time and energy, it also separates us from each other" (http://www.cnu.org/nunjuly98.html). This is a design perspective based on aesthetics instead of enviro... ...d, watertables, or their conditions. Nor was their any specific mention of the use of natural recyclable or sustainable materials in construction. These facts make me aware that there needs to be more collaboration and sharing of knowledge between planners, designers, builders, and ecologists. If ecological concerns are not given consideration in development, ultimately all life forms will suffer. If biologists and ecologists do not understand the essential elements of economics and aesthetics in design when communicating their concerns, nothing will be done to correct current development trends until human health is severely effected. Works Cited CNU Update http://www.cnu.org/nunjuly98.html Environmental Building News http://www.ebuild.com/Archives/Other_ Beth Dunlop, Architectural Record Jan. 97, The New Urbanists The Second Generation, p.132-135

Compare and Contrast Beowulf Book and Movie Essay

In the movie and poem Beowulf there were many differences and similarities that stood out to me. Usually when a book or poem gets made into a movie there are many differences and similarities. This is why I was not surprised that Beowulf the movie was no true to the original poem. I enjoyed the poem a lot more than the movie. The movie seemed artificial and not believable in comparison to the poem. One difference between the poem and the movie was that the poem explained the actual story of Beowulf and his journey in much more detail. On the other hand it was interesting to be able to visually see the poem come to life as it is always easier for my interest to be held when I am watching something instead of reading it. In the hi-tech world we live in visual information may help many people to better focus. The movie portrayed Beowulf cut off his arm so he could kill the dragon and also showed him ripping the dragon’s heart out. He died when he fell off the cliff with the dragon. Read Also:Â  Compare and Contrast Essay Rubric This made it extraordinarily different than the poem, where Beowulf just slayed the dragon without the extra dramatics. Beowulf is considered a heroic figure in the poem because he protected the Danes from the beasts and in the movie he is portrayed more as a liar than a hero. For example he lies about the dragon being his son and having an affair with Grendel’s mother. This was never mentioned in the poem. In the movie, Hrothgar is accused of cheating on Welthow with Grendel’s mother and giving birth to Grendel. In the movie when Beowulf came to protect the country of the Danes he is mesmerized by Grendel’s mother’s beauty however the poem makes no mention of this. Historically women had no power compared to men and this is why there is very little mention of the queen in the poem. In the movie the queen is a central figure who has much power. Given the times having the queen described as such an important figure is completely inaccurate. In the movie Hrothgar commits suicide which was completely different than in the poem. How does hrothgar die? In the movie, Beowulf is the dragon’s father and Hrothgar is Grendels father. This association was never described in the poem. The movie leads us to believe that Hrothgar cheated on Welthow and had a controversial relationship with Grendel’s mother and gave birth to Grendel. In the poem, Beowulf killed Grendel’s mother when he dove into the water and killed her with a sword. Similarities between the poem and the movie include when Grendel dies when Beowulf cuts off his head and his arm and mounts the arm on the wall.